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  • 1.
    Jonsson Kårström, Malin
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences (HOV).
    Physiological and biomechanical aspects of rifle carriage during biathlon skiing2023Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
    Abstract [en]

    Biathlon is an endurance-based winter sport that combines crosscountry (XC) skiing with rifle marksmanship. While skiing, biathletes carry the rifle (weighing ≥ 3.5 kg) on their backs. However, research regarding the effects of rifle carriage in biathlon is lacking. Therefore, the aim of this body of work was to investigate how rifle carriage in biathlon affects physiological and biomechanical variables related to biathlon skiing performance, and possible sex differences associated with rifle carriage. Physiological (Study I) and kinematical (Study III) effects of rifle carriage were tested in a laboratory using treadmill roller-skiing, whereas the effects of rifle carriage on gear distribution were tested in the field on snow (Study IV). In addition, the effects of supplementary rifle-carriage training on physiological variables and skiing performance were investigated (Study II).

    The results of this thesis show that rifle carriage affects both physiological and biomechanical variables during biathlon skiing. From a physiological perspective, skiing with the rifle (WR) increased respiratory variables (oxygen uptake, ventilation rate and carbon dioxide production) and blood lactate concentration (BLa) at workloads around or above the lactate threshold during submaximal skiing, while the speed at 4 mmol of BLa (speed@4mmol) decreased compared to skiing without the rifle (NR) (Study I). During maximal treadmill roller-skiing the anaerobic metabolic rate (MRan) decreased when skiing WR, and MRan together with speed@4mmol explained ~ 80% of the variation in time trial (TT) performance WR (Study I). Rifle carriage also impaired TT performance during both treadmill rollerskiing in the laboratory (Study I) and on-snow skiing in the field (Study IV). From a biomechanical perspective, skiing WR decreased flexion/extension range of motion (ROM) in the shoulder and thorax, while abduction/adduction and internal/external rotation ROM in the shoulder and thorax increased compared to NR (Study III). Rifle carriage also decreased the maximal height of the shoulders during skiing (i.e., exhibiting a lower body position), which was related to a more forward tilt of the thorax compared to skiing NR (Study III). During the on-snow TT, skiing WR increased the use of gear 2, while the distance and time spent in gear 3 was decreased (Study IV). Although the relative mass of the rifle was greater for the women compared to the men (Study I–IV), the physiological, performance and biomechanical responses to rifle carriage were similar for both sexes. The only exception was a larger decrease in flexion/extension ROM in the thorax during skiing WR for the women compared to the men (Study III). During the training intervention, only ~ 10% of the endurance-based training was performed WR for the control group. Compared to the control group, one additional training session per week (~ 2 h∙week-1) WR over a 16-week period did not affect physiological variables or improve roller-skiing performance (Study II).

    This body of work showed that rifle carriage affects physiological, biomechanical and performance aspects of biathlon skiing, and that a relatively low amount of the training is performed WR. This thesis contributes new knowledge of the unique demands of biathlon skiing, which can inform development of sport-specific training. To improve biathlon skiing performance, training WR may be individualized to each athlete, with specific focus on training intensities and technique development when skiing with the rifle.

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  • 2.
    Jonsson Kårström, Malin
    et al.
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    McGawley, Kerry
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    Laaksonen, Marko
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    Effects of Additional Rifle-Carriage Training on Physiological Markers and Roller-Skiing Performance in Well-Trained Biathletes2021In: Journal of Science in Sport and Exercise, ISSN 2096-6709, E-ISSN 2662-1371, Vol. 3, no 3, p. 292-302Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Purpose

    The purpose was to investigate whether an increased amount of training while carrying the rifle affects skiing in well-trained biathletes at submaximal and maximal workloads during a pre-season period lasting a minimum of 12 weeks.

    Methods

    Seventeen well-trained biathletes (9 females, 8 males) were assigned to an intervention (IG, n = 10) or control (CG, n = 7) group. Before (T1) and after (T2) the training intervention all participants performed, using treadmill roller-skiing, a submaximal test without the rifle on one day and two submaximal workloads and a maximal time trial (TT) with the rifle on a subsequent day. Between T1 and T2 all participants performed a minimum of 12 weeks of normal training, the only difference between groups being that IG performed more of their training sessions carrying the rifle.

    Results

    IG performed more training compared to CG (15.4 ± 1.1 vs. 11.2 ± 2.6 h/week, P < 0.05), including a higher amount of training with the rifle (3.1 ± 0.6 vs. 1.1 ± 0.3 h/week, P < 0.001). Speed at 4 mmol/L of blood lactate increased significantly for CG from T1 to T2 (P = 0.028), while only tended to increase for IG (P = 0.058). Performance during the TT, VO2max and the aerobic metabolic rate increased significantly from T1 to T2, although the differences disappeared when including the speed at baseline as a covariate.

    Conclusion

    According to the present results, increasing training while carrying the rifle by 2 h/week does not appear to improve skiing performance in well-trained biathletes. In addition, physiological markers at submaximal and maximal intensities while carrying the rifle were not affected after the training intervention.

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  • 3.
    Jonsson Kårström, Malin
    et al.
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    McGawley, Kerry
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    Laaksonen, Marko
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    Physiological Responses to Rifle Carriage During Roller-Skiing in Elite Biathletes2019In: Frontiers in Physiology, E-ISSN 1664-042X, Vol. 10, article id 1519Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Purpose: This study aimed to investigate the physiological factors affected by rifle carriage during biathlon skiing performance, as well as the sex differences associated with rifle carriage.

    Methods: Seventeen national- and international-level biathletes (nine females and eight males; age 23.0 ± 3.3 years, V." role="presentation" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline; line-height: normal; word-spacing: normal; overflow-wrap: normal; white-space: nowrap; float: none; direction: ltr; max-width: none; max-height: none; min-width: 0px; min-height: 0px; border: 0px; padding: 0px; margin: 0px; position: relative; outline: 0px !important;">V.V.O2max 59.4 ± 7.6 mL.kg–1.min–1) performed a submaximal incremental test and a maximal time-trial (TT) using treadmill roller-skiing (gear 3, skating technique) on two occasions separated by at least 48 h. One condition involved carrying the rifle on the back (WR) and the other condition no rifle (NR) and the tests were randomized. Submaximal V." role="presentation" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline; line-height: normal; word-spacing: normal; overflow-wrap: normal; white-space: nowrap; float: none; direction: ltr; max-width: none; max-height: none; min-width: 0px; min-height: 0px; border: 0px; padding: 0px; margin: 0px; position: relative; outline: 0px !important;">V.V.O2, skiing speed at 4 mmol.L–1 of blood lactate (speed@4mmol), gross efficiency (GE), aerobic (MRae), and anaerobic (MRan) metabolic rates, and V." role="presentation" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline; line-height: normal; word-spacing: normal; overflow-wrap: normal; white-space: nowrap; float: none; direction: ltr; max-width: none; max-height: none; min-width: 0px; min-height: 0px; border: 0px; padding: 0px; margin: 0px; position: relative; outline: 0px !important;">V.V.O2max were determined.

    Results: Submaximal V." role="presentation" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline; line-height: normal; word-spacing: normal; overflow-wrap: normal; white-space: nowrap; float: none; direction: ltr; max-width: none; max-height: none; min-width: 0px; min-height: 0px; border: 0px; padding: 0px; margin: 0px; position: relative; outline: 0px !important;">V.V.O2 (at all intensities) and GE (16.7 ± 0.9 vs. 16.5 ± 1.1%) were higher for WR compared to NR (p < 0.05), while speed@4mmol was lower (3.1 ± 0.4 vs. 3.3 ± 0.5 m.s–1, p = 0.040). TT performance was improved (4.6 ± 0.4 vs. 4.3 ± 0.4 m.s–1, p < 0.001) and MRan was higher (31.3 ± 8.0 vs. 27.5 ± 6.5 kJ.min–1, p < 0.01) for NR compared to WR, with no difference in V." role="presentation" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline; line-height: normal; word-spacing: normal; overflow-wrap: normal; white-space: nowrap; float: none; direction: ltr; max-width: none; max-height: none; min-width: 0px; min-height: 0px; border: 0px; padding: 0px; margin: 0px; position: relative; outline: 0px !important;">V.V.O2max or MRae. For skiing WR, TT performance was correlated to speed@4mmol (r = 0.81, p < 0.001), MRan (r = 0.65, p < 0.01), V." role="presentation" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline; line-height: normal; word-spacing: normal; overflow-wrap: normal; white-space: nowrap; float: none; direction: ltr; max-width: none; max-height: none; min-width: 0px; min-height: 0px; border: 0px; padding: 0px; margin: 0px; position: relative; outline: 0px !important;">V.V.O2max (r = 0.51, p < 0.05), and relative muscle (r = 0.67, p < 0.01) and fat (r = −0.67, p < 0.01) masses. Speed@4mmol together with MRan explained more than 80% of the variation in TT performance (WR 84%, NR 81%). Despite a higher relative mass of the rifle in females compared with males (5.6 ± 0.4 vs. 5.0 ± 0.4% of body mass, p = 0.012), there were no sex differences associated with rifle carriage measured as absolute or relative differences.

    Conclusion: Rifle carriage in biathlon skiing led to significantly higher physiological demands during submaximal exercise and reduced performance during maximal treadmill roller-skiing compared to NR for both sexes. The most important variables for performance in biathlon treadmill skiing seem to be speed@4mmol combined with MRan, both of which were lower for WR compared to NR. To improve skiing performance in biathlon, improving speed at 4 mmol.L–1 of blood lactate and anaerobic energy delivery while carrying the rifle are recommended.

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  • 4.
    Jonsson Kårström, Malin
    et al.
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences (HOV).
    Staunton, Craig A.
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences (HOV).
    McGawley, Kerry
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences (HOV).
    Björklund, Glenn
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences (HOV).
    Laaksonen, Marko
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences (HOV).
    Rifle carriage affects gear distribution during on-snow skiing in female and male biathletes2022In: Journal of Sports Sciences, ISSN 0264-0414, E-ISSN 1466-447X, Vol. 40, no 24, p. 2722-2731Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    The aim was to investigate whether rifle carriage affects gear distribution during on-snow skiing in highly-trained biathletes, and whether there were any associated sex differences. Twenty-eight biathletes (11 women, 17 men) skied a 2230-m lap at competition speed twice, one lap with the rifle (WR) and the other lap without the rifle (NR). The biathletes wore a portable 3D-motion analysis system while skiing, which enabled characterisation of distance and time in different gears. Skiing WR increased lap time compared to NR (412 (90) vs. 395 (91) s, p < 0.001). The biathletes used gear 2 to a greater extent WR compared to NR (distance: 413 ± 139 vs. 365 ± 142 m; time: 133 (95) vs. 113 (86) s; both p < 0.001) and gear 3 less (distance: 713 ± 166 vs. 769 ± 182 m, p < 0.001; time: 141 ± 33 vs. 149 ± 37 s, p = 0.008), with similar patterns for women and men. Differences between WR and NR in the use of gears 3 and 2 were more extensive for moderate compared to steeper uphill terrain. Rifle carriage increased the use of gear 2, which was negatively associated with performance. Therefore, preparing biathletes to be able to cover more distance in gear 3 WR, especially in moderate uphill terrain, may improve biathlon skiing performance.

  • 5.
    Jonsson Kårström, Malin
    et al.
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences (HOV).
    Staunton, Craig A.
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences (HOV).
    McGawley, Kerry
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences (HOV).
    Björklund, Glenn
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences (HOV).
    Laaksonen, Marko
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences (HOV).
    Rifle carriage affects gear distribution during on-snow skiing in female and male biathletes2023Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    INTRODUCTION: A greater usage of gear 3 is associated with improved performance in cross-country skiing. However, it remains unclear whether rifle carriage in biathlon affects sub-technique choice, and therefore biathlon skiing performance. Therefore,this study aimed to investigate whether rifle carriage affects gear distribution during on-snow skiing in biathletes, and whether there are any associated sex differences.

    METHODS: Twenty-eight tier 3 biathletes (17 men, 11 women) skied a 2230-m lap at competition speed twice, once with the rifle (WR) and once without the rifle (NR) in a counter-balanced and randomized order. The course was divided into seven uphill sections, three flat sections and seven downhill sections. The biathletes wore aportable 3D-motion analysis system while skiing, which together with GNSS data enabled the characterization of distance covered and time spent in gears 2–4 and skiing without poles (NP). A two-way mixed model ANOVA was used to investigate whether rifle carriage and/or sex influenced gear distribution or performance.

    RESULTS: Skiing WR increased the lap time compared to NR (412 (90) vs.395 (91) s, p < 0.001). The biathletes used gear 2 to a greater extent during WR compared to NR (distance: 413 ± 139 vs. 365 ± 142 m; time: 133 (95) vs. 113 (86) s;both p < 0.001) and gear 3 to a lesser extent (distance: 713 ± 166 vs. 769 ± 182 m,p < 0.001; time: 141 ± 33 vs. 149 ± 37 s, p < 0.01) without differences in gear 4 or NP.The women demonstrated a greater proportional use of gear 2 compared to the men (p < 0.05). For the two longest uphill sections, the uphill with a more moderate incline (4.5°) revealed more differences between WR and NR in the use of gears 2 and 3 compared to the uphill with a steeper incline (6.7°). Increased usage of gear 2 (distance and time) was also negatively related to performance during WR and NR (r = 0.516–0.901, p < 0.01).

    DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION: Rifle carriage decreases the distance covered and time spent in gear 3 and increases these metrics in gear 2, and the use of gear 2 was negatively related to performance. Rifle carriage had a greater impact on gear distribution when skiing in moderate uphill terrain, where changes between gears 2 and 3 were more common, compared to in steeper terrain. This information can be useful for athletes and coaches when developing and optimizing sport-specific biathlon training to improve performance.

  • 6.
    Jonsson Kårström, Malin
    et al.
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences (HOV).
    Stöggl, Thomas
    Lund Ohlsson, Marie
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences (HOV).
    McGawley, Kerry
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences (HOV).
    Laaksonen, Marko S.
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences (HOV).
    Kinematical effects of rifle carriage on roller skiing in well-trained female and male biathletes2023In: Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, ISSN 0905-7188, E-ISSN 1600-0838, Vol. 33, no 4, p. 444-454Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Purpose: This study aimed to investigate how rifle carriage and skiing speed during biathlon roller skiing affect range of motion (ROM) in joint angles and equipment (skis and poles), the vertical distance between shoulders and treadmill (vertdist), as well as possible sex differences associated with rifle carriage. Methods: Fourteen biathletes (6 women, 8 men) roller-skied on a treadmill at submaximal and simulated race speeds, with (WR) and without (NR) a rifle, using gears 3 and 2. Kinematical data for the whole body, poles, roller-skis, rifle, and treadmill were monitored using a 3D motion capture system. Movements determined as flexion/extension (x), abduction/adduction (y), and/or internal/external rotation (z) were analyzed for the hip, shoulder, thorax, knee, ankle, elbow, poles, and roller skis. ROM (the difference between maximal and minimal angles) in joints and equipment, and vertdist were analyzed over six skiing cycles during each condition (WR and NR) and speed. Results: The maximal vertdist was lower for WR compared with NR (gear 3: 1.53 ± 0.06 vs 1.54 ± 0.06 m; gear 2: 1.49 ± 0.06 vs 1.51 ± 0.06 m; both p &lt; 0.001). ROM in the upper body was altered when roller skiing WR (movements decreased in thorax and shoulder (x) and increased in elbow (only gear 3) (x), thorax (only gear 2), and shoulder (y) and (z); all p &lt; 0.05) and increased with speed, without differences between sexes (p &gt; 0.05). Conclusion: Since rifle carriage and speed appear to affect the kinematics of roller skiing, coaches, and biathletes are advised to perform skiing technique training under competition-like conditions (i.e., at race speeds while carrying the rifle). 

  • 7.
    Jonsson Kårström, Malin
    et al.
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences (HOV).
    Stöggl, Thomas
    Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg.
    Lund Ohlsson, Marie
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences (HOV).
    McGawley, Kerry
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences (HOV).
    Laaksonen, Marko S.
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences (HOV).
    Kinematical Effects of Rifle Carriage on Roller-Skiing in Well-Trained Female and Male Biathletes2022Conference paper (Other academic)
    Abstract [en]

    Purpose 

    This study aimed to investigate how rifle carriage and skiing speed during biathlon roller-skiing affect range of motion (ROM) in joint angles and equipment (skis and poles), the vertical distance between shoulders and treadmill (vertdist), as well as possible sex differences associated with rifle carriage. 

    Methods 

    Fourteen biathletes (6 women, 8 men) roller-skied on a treadmill at submaximal and simulated race speeds, with (WR) and without (NR) a rifle, using gears 3 and 2. Kinematical data for the whole body, poles, roller-skis, rifle and treadmill were monitored using a 3D motion capture system. Movements determined as flexion/extension (x), abduction/adduction (y) and/or internal/external rotation (z) were analyzed for the hip, shoulder, thorax, knee, ankle, elbow, poles and roller-skis. ROM (the difference between maximal and minimal angles) in joints and equipment, and vertdist were analyzed over six skiing cycles during each condition (WR and NR) and speed. 

    Results 

    The maximal vertdist was lower for WR compared to NR (gear 3: 1.53±0.06 vs 1.54±0.06 m; gear 2: 1.49±0.06 vs 1.51±0.06 m; both p<0.001). ROM in the upper body was altered when roller-skiing WR (movements decreased in thorax and shoulder (x) and increased in elbow (only gear 3) (x), thorax (only gear 2) and shoulder (y) and (z); all p><0.05) and increased with speed, without differences between sexes (p>0.05). 

    Conclusion 

    Since rifle carriage and speed appear to affect the kinematics of rollerskiing, coaches and biathletes are advised to perform skiing technique training under competition-like conditions (i.e., at race speeds while carrying the rifle).

  • 8.
    Jonsson, Malin
    et al.
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    Laaksonen, Marko
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    Differences in range of motion and feet pressure between skiing with and without rifle in gear 3 for female biathletes2015In: Book of Abstracts of the 20th Annual Congress of theEuropean College of Sport Science – 24th - 27th June 2015, Malmö – Sweden / [ed] Radmann, A., Hedenborg, S., Tsolakidis, E., 2015Conference paper (Refereed)
  • 9.
    Jonsson, Malin
    et al.
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    McGawley, Kerry
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    Laaksonen, Marko
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    Rifle carriage decreases speed at lactate threshold, anaerobic energy contribution and performance in biathlon skiing.2019Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Biathlon is an endurance sport combining rifle shooting and intermittent cross-country skiing while carrying a rifle (minimum weight 3.5 kg). Previous studies have shown that the skiing component explains 60% of overall biathlon performance (1) and that rifle carriage affects different physiological responses such as blood lactate, oxygen uptake (VO2) and heart rate during skiing (2, 3). However, the effects of rifle carriage on skiing performance and variables such as maximal VO2 (VO2max), lactate threshold, efficiency of movement and anaerobic energy contribution have not yet been investigated.METHODS:Seventeen biathletes (9 females, 8 males; age 23.0 (3.3) years, VO2max 59.8 (7.3) mL/kg/min), competing at a national and/or international level, and completing approximately three biathlon training sessions/week with the rifle on the back, performed a submaximal incremental test and a 900–1000-m maximal time-trial (TT) using treadmill roller-skiing (gear 3 skating technique) on two occasions separated by at least 48 hours. One condition involved carrying the rifle on the back (WR) and the other no rifle (NR), with the order randomized. The VO2 and skiing speed at 4 mmol/L of blood lactate (VO2@4mmol and speed@4mmol, respectively), gross efficiency (GE), metabolic aerobic (MRae) and anaerobic (MRan) rates, and VO2max were determined. RESULTS:Submaximal VO2 at all levels and GE (16.7 (0.9) vs 16.5 (1.1) %, p<0.05) were higher for WR compared to NR, while speed@4mmol (11.3 (1.5) vs 11.7 (1.5) km/h, p<0.05) and MRan (27.3 (6.7) vs 30.5 (7.6) kJ/min, p<0.01) was lower. There were no differences in VO2@4mmol or MRae between the two conditions. The mean speed during the TT was higher for NR compared to WR (16.5 (1.5) vs 15.5 (1.4) km/h, p<0.001), but there was no difference in VO2max. Mean speed during the TT was correlated to speed@4mmol (WR: r=0.810, p<0.001; NR: r=0.659, p<0.01), GE (WR: r=0.691; NR r=0.529, both p<0.05) and VO2max (WR: r=0.514; NR: r=0.526, both p<0.05). Speed@4mmol together with MRan explained more than 80% of performance in the TT (WR 83.7%, NR 81.5%). There was no difference between male and female biathletes in response to rifle carriage, although the relative mass of the rifle was higher for the females (5.6 (0.4) vs 5.0 (0.4) % of body mass, p<0.01).CONCLUSION:According to this study, the most important variables for skiing speed in biathlon seem to be the speed at lactate threshold combined with the metabolic anaerobic rate, both of which were lower for skiing with the rifle compared to without. In addition, GE was related to biathlon performance and was also affected by rifle carriage. Thus, to improve skiing performance in biathlon, improving speed at the lactate threshold, anaerobic energy delivery and GE while carrying the rifle are recommended.

  • 10.
    Jonsson, Malin
    et al.
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    Welde, Boye
    UiT, Arctic University of Norway, Tromsö, Norway.
    Ljung, Lars
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    Pettersen, Svein Arne
    UiT, Arctic University of Norway, Tromsö, Norway.
    Supej, Matej
    University of Ljubljana, Slovenia.
    Holmberg, Hans-Christer
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    Stöggl, Thomas
    University of Salzburg, Austria.
    Biomechanical differences in double poling (DP) for world- and national-class female elite cross-country (XC) skiers during a 10-km classical race2016In: Proceedings ICSS in St. Christoph am Arlberg, Austria, 2016Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Introduction The DP technique of classical XC-skiing involves both the upper and lower body (Holmberg et al.,2005) and has become more important the last years with skiers using exclusively DP during some competitions. Our purpose was to characterize biomechanical differences in DP by world- (WC) and national-class (NC) women skiers. Methods The participants were 40 elite female XC skiers (20 WC and 20 NC) who competed in the 10-km classical race at the Norwegian National Championships, 2016. On a flat measurement section (22 m long) 0.8 km from the start, the skiers employed DP only and were video-filmed (Panasonic GH4, 96 Hz). Three DP cycles were analyzed using the Kinovea software (France, v 8.25) for joint and pole angles at pole plant (PP) and pole off (PO), as well as cycle length (CL) and rate (CR), and poling (PT) and swing times (ST). Results The total racing time for the WC-group was 10.5% faster than for the NC-skiers, with no differences in CL, CR, PT or ST. The WC-group skied faster on the flat section (6.30±0.23 vs 6.04±0.25 m/s) and exhibited a smaller ankle-shoulder angle relative to horizontal at PP (73.0±1.8 vs 75.0±1.5°) and a smaller hip angle at PO (62.7±5.2 vs 69.1±6.4°) with no difference in minimal trunk angle with respect to horizontal (19.2±3.2 vs 21.7±4.8°). 27 of the skiers (15 WC and 12 NC) used active heel raise to create force. There was a difference between the groups for when the heel raise ended, with the NC-group stopping just before PP and the WC-group after. No difference between the groups were found for when the heel raise started . There was a negative correlation between DP velocity and total racing time (r = -0.48, p<0.05) and a positive correlation between total racing time and the ankle-shoulder angle relative to horizontal at PP (r = 0.54, p<0.01), the hip angle at PO (r = 0.51, p<0.01) and minimal trunk angle relative to horizontal during the cycles (r = 0.41, p<0.01). Discussion The WC-group had 4.1% higher DP velocity which correlated with total racing time. Moreover, the finding that faster skiers have a more forward lean of the body at PP and a better timing of the ending of the heel raise, indicates that they can bring more bodyweight on their poles at PP. The WC-group had a smaller hip angle at PO which is in line with the findings of Lindinger et al.(2009). This study shows the importance of a high relative velocity during DP sections of the track and highlights the benefit of a more forward body position at PP to create higher DP velocity in female XC skiers. References Holmberg, H.C., Lindinger, S., Stöggl, T., Eitzlmair, E. & Müller, E. (2005). Biomechanical analysis of double poling in elite cross-country skiers. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 37(5), 807-818 Lindinger, S., Stöggl, T., Müller, E. & Holmberg, H.C. (2009). Control of speed during the double poling technique performed by elite cross-country skiers. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 41(1), 210-220

  • 11.
    Jonsson, Malin
    et al.
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    Welde, Boye
    The Arctic university of Norway, Tromsø, Norway.
    Stöggl, Thomas
    University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria.
    Biomechanical differences in double poling between sexes and level of performance during a classical cross-country skiing competition2019In: Journal of Sports Sciences, ISSN 0264-0414, E-ISSN 1466-447X, Vol. 37, no 14, p. 1582-1590Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Biomechanical differences in double poling (DP) between sex and performance level were investigated in female and male cross-country skiers during a classical race (10/15 km). Skiers were divided into faster and slower on basis of race performance: females faster (n=20), females slower (n=20), males faster (n=20), and males slower (n=20). Based on video analysis while DP in a flat section of the track, joint and pole angles at pole plant (PP) and pole-off, cycle characteristics and the use and coordination pattern of heel-raise (raise of heels from the ground to have a higher body position at PP) were analysed. Faster females and males had 4.3% and 7.8% higher DP velocity than their slower counterparts (both P<0.001). Faster males had 6.5% longer cycles than slower males (P<0.001). Faster skiers stopped heel-raise later than slower skiers (females: 2.0±3.4% vs. −1.0±3.5%, P<0.05; males: 3.9±2.4% vs. 0.8±3.2% of cycle time in relation to PP, P<0.001). At PP, faster skiers and male skiers had a smaller pole angle and greater ankle to hip and ankle to shoulder angle with respect to vertical, resulting in a more distinct forward body lean. However, the majority of the differences are likely due to higher DP velocity.

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  • 12.
    Laaksonen, Marko
    et al.
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    Andersson, Erik
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    Jonsson Kårström, Malin
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    Lindblom, Hampus
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    McGawley, Kerry
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    Laboratory-Based Factors Predicting Skiing Performance in Female and Male Biathletes2020In: Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, E-ISSN 2624-9367, Vol. 2, article id 99Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Skiing in biathlon is a high-intensity, intermittent endurance discipline. This study aimed to evaluate the relationships between laboratory-derived physiological variables and skiing performance during a field-based biathlon competition (BC) for female and male biathletes. Fourteen female (23 ± 3 year, VO2max 56 ± 4 mL·kg−1·min−1) and 14 male (24 ± 4 year, VO2max 66 ± 3 mL·kg−1·min−1) biathletes performed a submaximal incremental test and a maximal time-trial (TT) using treadmill roller-skiing for the assessment of oxygen uptake at a lactate threshold of 4 mmol·L−1 (VO2@4mmol), gross efficiency (GE), aerobic (MRae) and anaerobic (MRan) metabolic rates, peak oxygen consumption (VO2peak), anaerobic capacity and TT performance. Field-based skiing performance was assessed during a BC. The TT and BC skiing performances were significantly correlated in both sexes (r = 0.68–0.69, p < 0.01). VO2peak (31/21%), anaerobic capacity (1/0%), and GE (35/32%) explained 67 and 52% of the variance in BC skiing performance for the females (p < 0.01) and males (p = 0.051), respectively. A second model showed that VO2@4mmol (30/35%), anaerobic capacity (0/0%) and GE (37/13%) explained 67 and 48% of the variance in BC skiing performance for the females (p < 0.01) and males (p = 0.077), respectively. Results of this study suggest that a high VO2@4mmol and GE, but not anaerobic capacity, are important for BC skiing performance, especially for females. In addition, a laboratory-based TT could be useful for regular laboratory testing of biathletes due to its relationship with field-based skiing performance in biathlon.

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  • 13.
    Laaksonen, Marko
    et al.
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    Andersson, Erik
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    Jonsson, Malin
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    McGawley, Kerry
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    Laboratory-based factors predicting performance in biathlon skiing2017Conference paper (Refereed)
  • 14.
    Laaksonen, Marko
    et al.
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    Jonsson, Malin
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    Holmberg, Hans-Christer
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences. UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway; The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
    The Olympic biathlon – Recent advances and perspectives after Pyeongchang2018In: Frontiers in Physiology, E-ISSN 1664-042X, Vol. 9, no JUL, article id 796Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    The biathlon, combining cross-country ski skating with rifle marksmanship, has been an Olympic event since the Winter Games in Squaw Valley, United States, in 1960. As a consequence of replacing the classical with the skating technique in the 1980s, as well as considerable improvements in equipment and preparation of ski tracks and more effective training, the average biathlon skiing speed has increased substantially. Moreover, the mass-start, pursuit, and sprint races have been introduced. Indeed, two of the four current individual Olympic biathlon competitions involve mass-starts, where tactics play a major role and the outcome is often decided during the last round of shooting or final sprint. Biathlon is a demanding endurance sport requiring extensive aerobic capacity. The wide range of speeds and slopes involved requires biathletes to alternate continuously between and adapt different skating sub-techniques duringraces, a technical complexity that places a premium on efficiency. Although the relative amounts of endurance training at different levels of intensity have remained essentially constant during recent decades, today’s biathletes perform more specific endurance training on roller skis on terrain similar to that used for competition, with more focus on the upper-body, systematic strength and power training and skiing at higher speeds. Success in the biathlon also requires accurate and rapid shooting while simultaneously recovering from high-intensity skiing. Many different factors, including body sway, triggering behavior, and even psychology, influence the shooting performance. Thus, the complexity of biathlon deserves a greater research focus on areas such as race tactics, skating techniques, or shooting process.

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  • 15.
    Staunton, Craig A.
    et al.
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences (HOV).
    Jonsson Kårström, Malin
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences (HOV).
    Björklund, Glenn
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences (HOV).
    Laaksonen, Marko S.
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences (HOV).
    Performance and Micro‑Pacing Strategies in Biathlon Skiing2024In: Journal of Science in Sport and Exercise, ISSN 2096-6709, E-ISSN 2662-1371, Vol. 6, no 4, p. 324-331Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Purpose To examine the micro-pacing (within-lap) strategies during biathlon skiing with and without the biathlon rifle. Methods Twenty biathletes (7 women, 13 men) performed two crosscountry skiing time-trials on a ≈2300 m course, once with and once without the biathlon rifle. During time-trials, biathletes wore a sensor that recorded position, distance and skiing-speed. A trajectory correction and statistical parametric mapping procedure determined the course positions (clusters) where instantaneous skiing-speed was significantly related to time-trial performance. The time differences between the fastest and slowest skier in these clusters were calculated. Results The fastest biathletes skied with greater instantaneous speeds in specific clusters, which included both uphill and downhill sections. The clusters represented time gains for the fastest skier over the slowest skier of between 16.1 and 25.8 s for the women and between 18.9 and 21.9 s for the men. The largest time gains between the fastest and slowest biathletes were observed in a downhill section that was preceded by a 180° turn, where time gains were between 2.9 and 4.1 s in clusters of between just 12 to 62 m. In biathlon skiing with-rifle, there were more clusters that were not present during without-rifle. When skiing with-rifle, there were additional clusters in the uphill sections that represented time gains of 5.2 s and 2.3 s for the women and men, respectively. Conclusions Statistical parametric mapping can be used in biathlon to provide pacing and performance feedback to athletes and coaches.

  • 16.
    Staunton, Craig A.
    et al.
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences (HOV).
    Sloof, Luciën
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences (HOV).
    Brandts, Maxime
    Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany.
    Jonsson Kårström, Malin
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences (HOV).
    Laaksonen, Marko
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences (HOV).
    Björklund, Glenn
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences (HOV).
    The Effect of Rifle Carriage on the Physiological and Accelerometer Responses During Biathlon Skiing2022In: Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, E-ISSN 2624-9367, Vol. 4, no March, p. 1-15, article id 813784Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Purpose: Investigate the effect of biathlon rifle carriage on physiological and accelerometer-derived responses during biathlon skiing.

    Methods: Twenty-eight biathletes (11F, 17M) completed two XC skiing time-trials (~2,300 m), once with and once without the biathlon rifle, with concurrent measurements of HR, skiing speed and accelerations recorded from three triaxial accelerometers attached at the Upper-spine, Lower-spine and Pelvis. Exercise intensity was quantified from HR, skiing speed as well from accelerometry-derived PlayerLoad™ per minute (PL·min−1) and average net force (AvFNet). All metrics were analyzed during Uphill, Flat and Downhill sections of the course. Relationships between accelerometry-derived metrics and skiing speed were examined.

    Results: Time-trials were faster for males compared with females (mean difference: 97 ± 73 s) and No-Rifle compared to With-Rifle (mean difference: 16 ± 9 s). HR was greatest during Downhill (183 ± 5 bpm), followed by Uphill (181 ± 5 bpm) and was lowest in the Flat sections (177 ± 6 bpm, p <0.05). For PL·min−1 and AvFNet there were 3-way Rifle x Gradient x Sensor-Position interactions. Typically, these metrics were greatest during Uphill and Flat sections and were lowest during Downhill sections. Rifle carriage had no impact on the AvFNet at the Lower-Spine or Pelvis. Significant positive linear relationships were identified between skiing speed and accelerometer-derived metrics during Uphill, Flat and Downhill skiing (r = 0.12–0.61, p < 0.05).

    Conclusions: The accelerometry-derived approach used in this study provides the potential of a novel method of monitoring the external demands during skiing. In particular, AvFNet with sensors located close to the center of mass displayed greatest utility because it followed the expected response of external intensity where responses were greatest during uphill sections, followed by flats and lowest during downhills. In addition, there were significant positive relationships between AvFNet and skiing speed ranging from small to large. Accelerometry-derived measures could provide useful estimates of the external demands in XC skiing and biathlon.

  • 17.
    Zinner, Christoph
    et al.
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    Willis, Sarah
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    Jonsson, Malin
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    Sperlich, Billy
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    Holmberg, Hans-Christer
    Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
    Heart rate responses during biathlon races of different lengths in elite athletes2014In: Science & Skiing VI / [ed] Erich Muller, Josef Kroll, Stefan Lindinger, Meyer & Meyer Sport, 2014, p. 483-494Chapter in book (Refereed)
1 - 17 of 17
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