Mid Sweden University

Förord

Allt fler är överens om att lärarna är skolans viktigaste resurs. Diskussionen om skolan handlar därför i hög grad om hur vi ska ge bästa tänkbara förutsättningar för lärarna att bedriva en bra undervisning. Man brukar säga att lärare och rektorer är exempel på professioner eller, lite beroende på definitionen, semiprofessioner. För alla grupper av professionella är det av yttersta vikt med autonomi i yrket –så även för lärare och rektorer. När effekterna av skolans kommunalisering ska bedömas är det därför relevant att analysera på vilket sätt lärarnas och rektorernas handlingsutrymme för självständiga professionella handlingar i den svenska skolan förändrats från tiden närmast före skolans kommunalisering och framåt. I denna rapport visas bland annat att staten vid olika tidsperioder tillerkänt skolans professionella varierande grad av handlingsutrymme för professionella handlingar i skolans vardagsarbete. I rapporten talas om att skolan före kommunaliseringen kännetecknades av central regelstyrning, som i samband med kommunaliseringen ersattes av en decentraliserad målstyrning. Numera utmärksstyrningen av centraliserad resultatstyrning. Vidare framhålls i rapporten att lärarna och rektorerna av olika skäl inte alltid använt det frirum för professionella handlingar som staten medgett.Undersökningen har genomförts efter ett uppdrag från denna utredning till professor Gunnar Berg, som utarbetat rapporten i samverkan med en grupp forskare bestående av Fia Andersson, Göran Bostedt, Judit Novak, Jan Perselli, Frank Sundh och Christer Wede. Forskarna ansvarar själva för innehållet i rapporten.

Utredningen om skolans kommunalisering (U 2012:09)

Leif Lewin Särskild utredare

Sammanfattning

I enlighet med studiens uppdragsbeskrivning uppmärksammas följande frågeställningar i denna rapport: (1) Vilka konsekvenser i fråga om pro­fessionellt frirum har skolans kommunalisering öppnat för från 1990-ta­let och fram till dagsläget, och (2) har frirummet under denna tidsperiod använts av de professionella för självständiga handlingar, och i så fall hur? I rapporten behandlas lärares och skolledares yrkesutövande under tidspe­rioden från skolans kommunalisering i början av 1990-talet till dagsläget (2013) i ett institutionellt perspektiv. Frirum är alltså rapportens nyckelbe­grepp, och givet detta tonar den s.k. frirumsteorin fram som en i samman­hanget adekvat analysram.

Frågan om frirum och professionell frirumsanvändning behandlas un­der tre tidsperioder. Den skolinstitution som utvecklades under efterkrigs­tiden fram till 1980-talets slut benämns som i huvudsak centraliserad och regelstyrd, och medgav ett professionellt frirum som för lärares del i hu­vudsak var koncentrerat till klassrumsarbete. Den kommunaliserade skola som in-fördes i början av 1990-talet innebar en decentraliseringslinje som i sin tur öppnade för en marknadslinje. Med en samlingsbeteckning kan 1990-talets skolinstitution karaktäriseras som målstyrd och decentraliserad. Intentionerna bakom decentraliseringslinjen var bl.a. att fri-rummet för skolans professionella skulle vidgas till att i princip omfatta skolverksam­het i alla dess operativa aspekter. I marknadslinjen betonades värden som valfrihet och konkurrens, och en väsentlig vikt lades här vid föräldrars och elevers fria skolval. 2000-talets skolinstitution präglas av centraliserad resul­tatstyrning, vilket står för att inom kommunaliseringens, valfrihetens och det fria skolvalets ramar har staten infört en successivt alltmer finmaskig kontrollapparat. Skolinspektionen tonar fram som det främsta uttrycket för denna skolinstitutionella struktur, och inspektionens 2000-tals histo­ria präglas av en gradvis skärpning av kontrollens utövande och möjliga sanktionsåtgärder för att korrigera skolverksamheter som inte bedöms hålla måttet. Ord som kvalitetsgranskning och kvalitetsarbete är nyckel­begrepp i detta sammanhang. Allmänt uttryckt innebär en mer utbyggd kontrollapparat att det formella frirummet för lärares och skolledares egna och självständiga handlingar minskar. De tre nämnda institutionella strukturerna vilar officiellt sett på begreppet likvärdighet, men detta be­grepp har tillskrivits olika innebörder som kan förstås i ljuset av respektive institutionell struktur.

Att frirummet formellt sett ökade under 1990-talets decentralisering, och minskade under 2000-talet till följd av utbyggnaden av den statliga kontrollapparaten, säger emellertid inte särskilt mycket om de professio­nellas faktiska frirumsanvändning. Att det över tid existerat – och fortfa­rande existerar – varierande art och grad av frirum för skolprofessionella handlingar innebär emellertid inte att det faktiskt används av skolans yrkesgrupper för egna och själv-ständiga handlingar. Med hänvisning till forskning, utvecklingsarbeten och annan empiri argumenteras i rapporten för att utvecklingsarbeten som syftat till utökad frirumsanvändning ofta utmynnat i intressemotsättningar mellan olika professionella aktörer sna­rare än kvalitetshöjande verksamhet. Rapporten visar även att 1990-ta­lets decentralisering, som var tänkt att ge utrymme för en professionell frirumsanvändning som för lärares del sträckte sig utöver själva klass­rumsarbetet, inte sällan stannade på kommunal skolpolitisk och förvalt­ningsnivå, och därmed i begränsad omfattning påverkade skolornas reella vardagsarbete. Rapporten visar vidare att även i dagens centraliserade och resultatstyrda skolinstitution existerar ett frirum som uppmärksammar lärares klassrumsarbete och rektorers resultat- och verksamhetsansvar, men som också lyfter fram skolors kollektiva professionella ansvar för var­dagsarbetet.

Rapporten har av avgränsningsskäl ett huvudsakligt fokus på grund­skolan, men de principiella slutsatserna gäller även i allt väsentligt även för gymnasieskolan.

Bristen på behöriga lärare har det senaste decenniet varit ett allvarligt samhälls-problem. Orsakerna till den uppkomna bristsituationen beskrivs på olika sätt beroende på avsändare. Detsamma gäller lösningsförslagen. Att balansera utbild-ningsvolym mot arbetsmarknadens efterfrågan av arbetskraft är i sig ett komplext problem omfattande olika parametrar. Den här artikeln har, med utgångspunkt i Arbetskraftsbarometern under de senaste 50 åren, granskat kontinuitet och varia-tioner vad avser tillgång och brist på lärare i F-6, samt troliga samband mellan olika skol-, policy och lärarutbildningsreformer. Genom ”wicked problem-teorin” har det empiriska resultatet kunnat analyseras och förstås fram för allt i relation till de underliggande processerna i problembilden. I relation till de många reformerna tycks fluktuationerna återkomma och accentueras med tydliga sam-band till just reformer. Utifrån resultaten ställer vi oss frågan huruvida utredare och beslutsfattare av de olika reformerna beaktat konsekvenserna av lärarrekry-teringen. Resultatet visar därtill att lärarbrist är ett sammansatt problem och att enskilda insatser inte löser problemet. Vi föreslår ett perspektivskifte i frågan från problem- till ett förståinriktade analyser med samordnade insatser av alla aktörer.

I rapporten diskuteras vad som krävs i ytterligare kunskapsnätverk för att förstärka möjligheterna till regional utveckling i Västernorrland.

Några av dess viktigaste slutsatser är behovet av ett utvecklat fokus kring vad som utgör en attraktiv region, en analys av regional interdependens och kulturanalyser för att skapa en känsla samhörighet och gemensamt sammanhang.

Skogen är betydelsefull för Sverige på många olika sätt. Den utgör t.ex. grunden för en viktig basindustri för landet, ger material till hus och hem, ger sysselsättning åt många, utgör plats för social gemenskap och rekreation, utgör miljö för mental och fysisk återhämtning för människor, är växt- och livsplats för mängder av växter och djur och den är ett viktigt rum för lärande – en lärmiljö.

Social studies students’ motivation to study in upper secondary schools

Göran Bostedt (Associate Professor in Political science), Department of Education

Mid Sweden University

Abstract

In order to increase the number of students who successfully complete upper secondary school, Sweden reformed its upper secondary school system in year 2011. Despite the new system the throughput is in principle unchanged, which means that approximately every fourth student interrupts his upper secondary studies. The main explanation for this has been stated to be a lack of study motivation among students. In order to analyze the lack of motivation to study as the cause of low throughput in upper secondary school, a perspective is chosen which not only focuses the individual student but also takes into account both the classroom situation as well as the entire school.

The results of this study is based on empirical data from one of Sweden’s 20 largest municipalities. The municipality was chosen because of a decision taken by local politicians to focus raising the students’ motivation to study as a highly prioritized activity for the upper secondary school programs. The chosen municipality is, compared to both Swedish municipalities of the same size as well as other municipalities in Sweden, in a troublesome situation in terms of student completion.

The aim of the study is to describe and analyze what determines social studies students’ motivation or lack of motivation to study. The research questions is:

a) What are teachers’ and upper secondary school social studies students’ perceptions on motivation/lack of motivation to study?

b) To what extent is motivation linked to course content?

c) To what extent is motivation related to the conditions for the implementation of the course/didactical approaches?

The study has been designed as a case study with an ethnographically inspired approach. The empirical data is based on students’ responses in a web-survey containing 20 questions about motivation and 6 semi-structured group interviews with 12 students and 20 teachers. All participants were informed about the project's objectives and applicable research ethics rules.

The study is divided into two sub-studies. Sub-study one is based on a quantitative approach. The responses to the different questions in the questionnaire are presented by descriptive statistics. Sub-study two is based on a qualitative research design, which can be characterized as a hybrid content analysis. Four themes have been determined in advance before the

interview material is analyzed. The four themes are the concepts of motivation, motivational strategies, learning environments and other environment. With the four themes as a basic structure, a categorization matrix was developed and all data were sorted into the relevant theme. Based on the results from the two sub-studies, the research questions will be addressed and discussed.

Keywords: social studies, study motivation, upper secondary school

References

Sveriges elevkårer & Lärarnas Riksförbund, (2015). Från avhopp till examen- så vill skolan utveckla skolan. Retrieved from www.lr.se/download/18.682f72ec14e16f2ff5c7b1ba/1435316342104/Fr%C3%A5n%20avhopp%20till%20examen%20Web.pdf

Gymnasieskolan har under de senaste åren rapporterat om låg genomströmning, elever med ofullständiga betyg och elever med bristande motivation. Forskarna Lena Boström och Göran Bostedt går igenom viktiga resultat från forskningen. Inspelat på Mittuniversitetet i Sundsvall den 24 mars 2022. 

Students’ motivation to study in upper secondary schools

Lena Boström (Professor in Education)

lena.bostrom@miun..se

Göran Bostedt (Associate Professor in Political science)

goran.bostedt@miun.se

Department of Education

Mid Sweden University

Sidsjövägen 5

S- 851 70 Sundsvall

Keywords: study motivation, extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation, upper secondary school

Abstract

In order to increase the number of student who successfully complete upper secondary school, Sweden reformed its upper secondary school system in year 2011. Despite the new system "the throughput is in principle unchanged, which means that approxima­tely every fourth student interrupts his upper secondary studies" (Sveriges elevkårer & Lärarnas Riksförbund, 2015, p 6). The main explanation for this was stated to be a lack of study motivation among students. Some 53 percent of the upper secondary school students reported low study motivation.

The most important factors for improving students’ motivation are, according to Sveriges elevkårer & Lärarnas Riksförbund, a) the supportive interaction between teacher and student and b) access to student health. This means that both internal and external motivational factors are viewed as important for reaching better study results. Research often highlights internal factors as particularly interesting when focusing students’ study motivation (Wery & Thomson, 2013). However some researchers (Blomberg, 2016: Hugo 2011; Håkansson & Sundberg, 2012) also argue for a broader perspective on the issue of motivation. In order to analyze the lack of motivation to study as the cause of low throughput in upper secondary school, a perspective is thus chosen which not only focuses the individual student but also takes into account both the classroom situation as well as the entire school. International research on student motivation is extensive.  While international research on student motivation is extensive, it is not as prominent in the Swedish educational context (Giota, 2013).

The results of this study are based on empirical data from one of Sweden’s 20 largest municipalities. The municipality was chosen as a result of a decision taken by local politicians to focus raising the students’ motivation to study as a highly prioritized activity for the upper secondary school programs. In 2015, the chosen municipality was, compared to both Swedish municipalities of the same size as well as other municipalities in Sweden, in a troublesome situation in terms of student completion (Skolverket, 2015).

The aim of the study is to describe and analyze what determines student motivation or lack of motivation to study. The research questions are:

a)      What determines upper secondary school students’ motivation/lack of motivation to study?

b)      What are teachers’ and students’ perceptions on how to increase students’ study motivation in upper secondary school and reasons/explanations for low study motivation? 

c)      To what extent is motivation linked to specific course content? 

d)     To what extent is motivation related to the conditions for the implementation of the course/didactical approaches? 

e)      How can we understand and describe students’ ambitions or lack of ambitions in relation to acquire the knowledge and skills the programs and its courses are in line with the intentions? 

Students’ study motivation will be analyzed from a perspective where motivation is more about transaction than interaction (Perry, Turner and Meyer, 2006). Motivation should not only be understood as an individual aspects, but also as negotiating meaning in social interaction. Motivation is seen as a process integrated into a larger whole, impossible to separate from learning, individual differences, and the nature of tasks or social context. For these reasons, it is important to analyze and discuss the results in relation to learning and perspectives on knowledge. According to Perry et al. there are strong links between motivation and a) communicated expectations b) clear feedback on results, c) interaction between teacher and pupil and between students, d) positive climate and e) teacher leadership. Students` study motivation will thereby be discussed based on individual characteristics, group dynamics, didactics and learning environments. In other words, we will analyze how both internal and external motivational factors can affect the results.

Since the study focuses on organizational conditions, perceptions of inter-human processes and individual properties, the study has been designed as a case study with an ethnographically inspired approach (Hammersley & Atkinson, 2007). The empirical data is based on 207 students’ responses in a web-survey containing 20 questions about motivation and six semi-structured group interviews with 12 students and 20 teachers. The students and teachers represent four different study programs (Social Science, Social Care, Individual choice and Vehicles and Transport programs). The programs were selected according to the principle of a) constituting a variation in what is theoretically versus practical oriented programs, b) ensuring a reasonable distribution between boys and girls, c) representing a possible variation in pupils with regard to learning strategies and d) representing student groups with different challenges in learning. All participants were informed about the project's objectives and applicable research ethics rules.

The study is divided into two sub-studies. Sub-study one is based on a quantitative approach. The responses to the different questions in the questionnaire are presented by descriptive statistics with the four study programs divided into separate groups. The data were also analyzed with the help of other statistical methods, such as analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Kruskal-Vallis. The statistical calculations were conducting using SPSS.

Sub-study two is based on s a qualitative research design, which ca be characterized as a hybrid content analysis (Fereday & Muir-Cochrane 2006), which started initially with deductive analysis, switched to inductive analysis and finally linked with deductive analysis and then switched to an inductive analysis and finally linking the theoretical starting points in the result. Here deductive analysis (theory-driven) means that themes have been determined in advance before the interview material is analyzed, which can be described as themes based on existing theories and research results (Mayring, 2000). The four themes we build the analysis on are the concepts of motivation, motivational strategies, learning environments and other environment. In order to analyze the content of the interviews, an inductive content analysis was used which was based on the interview responses. In other words, the analysis switched to an inductive approach. With the four themes as a basic structure, a categorization matrix was developed and all data were sorted into relevant theme. Based on the results from the two sub-studies, the research questions will be addressed and discussed.

The statistical data show differences between study programs in terms of positive/negative attitude towards schoolwork, absence from school, expectations on teachers and on results, competitiveness in realizing personal ambitions, support in terms of personal feedback and attitudes towards learning (i.e. learning for exams or learning for knowledge). There are also differences in self-esteem and self-confidence that affect motivation among the students. On the other hand, students tend to appreciate school as an institution, they feel safe being at school and the teachers have legitimacy in the eyes of the students.  

The results from the interviews indicate that both teachers and students view the complex interplay between results and motivation as an important part of the concept of motivation. Study results affect motivation and vice versa in both a positive and a negative way. Teachers and teachers' leadership are also of great importance for students’ study motivation. Teachers focus their leadership tasks on the importance of knowledge. Students relate to teacher leadership in relation to personal qualities such as being understood and getting support.

A difference between the two samples, is that teachers emphasize "life skills" in learning such as strategies for purposes, intermediate goals and sense of belonging, whiles students do not ll mention these strategies at all. A category where the perceptions between teachers and students coincide is the importance of well-being and safety in the learning environment and that the class/group/peers represents a motivational source for them. The teachers pointed to the importance of adaptations and smaller groups in the learning environment. The students believed that the external learning environment also played an important role. Regarding the surrounding environment, the two groups mentioned the importance of peers as a motivational factor, either helping to increase or reduce study motivation.

References

Blomgren, J. (2016). Den svårfångade motivationen: elever i en digitaliserad lärmiljö. (Diss) Gothenburg studies in educational sciences 393

Giota, J. (2013). Individualisering i skolan – vilken, varför och hur? En

forskningsöversikt. Vetenskapsrådets rapportserie, 3, Stockholm:

Fereday, J. & Muir-Cochrane, E. (2006). Demonstrating Rigor Using Thematic Analysis: A Hybrid Approach of Inductive and Deductive Coding and Theme Development. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, pp 80-92.

Hammersley, M. & Atkinson, P. (2007).  Ethnography: Principles in practice. New York Routledge,

Håkansson J. & Sundberg, D. (2012), Utmärkt undervisning: framgångsfaktorer i svensk och internationell belysning. Stockholm: Natur och kultur,

Illeris, (2015) Lärande. Lund: Studentlitteratur

Mayring,P. (2000). Qualitative Content Analysis. Qualitative Social Research, Vol. 1, No. 2, Art. 20

Perry, N., Turner,J.C.,  & Meyer, D.K  (2006) Student Engagement in the classroom. In Alexander, P., Winne, P. (Eds) Handbook of Edcucational Psychology. Erlbaum

Sveriges elevkårer & Lärarnas Riksförbund, (2015). Från avhopp till examen- så vill skolan utveckla skolan. Retrieved from www.lr.se/download/18.682f72ec14e16f2ff5c7b1ba/1435316342104/Fr%C3%A5n%20avhopp%20till%20examen%20Web.pdf

Wery, J. & Thomson, M. (2013). Motivational strategies to enhance effective learning in teaching struggling students. Support for learning, Vol. 28, pp. 103-108

The aim of this study is to describe and analyze how students conceptualize their motivation to study. Empirical data has been gathered through group interviews with 54 Swedish students in middle and high school. In Sweden, a decrease in motivation to study is both evident and discordant. Studies by OECD (2022) has reported declining ratings internationally for the compulsory school in Sweden during the years 2000-2012, even though slightly improving the results in PISA ratings year 2012 and 2018 (Skolverket 2019), a high proportion of students with incomplete grades (Skolverket 2020a, 2020b), and a lack of motivation (Sveriges Elevkårer & Lärarnas Riksförbund, 2015). That study motivation is an important issue in both compulsory school and upper secondary school is also confirmed in statistics from the National Agency for Education. Many actors (parents, student organizations, teachers’ unions, the National Agency for Education, businesses, and politicians) are demanding measures to change the negative trend.

When children start school, they encounter various challenges and demands in social, cognitive, and academic tasks. However, student motivation to learn seems to diminish over time as the students get older (Martin, 2009). Compulsory school teachers report that already in the intermediate stage, attention is drawn to the problem of a lack of study motivation among some students, preferably boys (Boström & Bostedt, 2021). The question of study motivation is thus relevant in most of the students’ year groups. Besides different age groups, it is also important to analyze variations in the student groups dependent on important background variables, such as gender, country of birth, parents’ level of education, and socioeconomic status. The concept of study motivation has not been researched to any great extent but more focused students' motivation in different subjects (Boström & Bostedt, 2022).

Teachers try to help students to study effectively and to increase their motivation by introducing study techniques. Study techniques are often described as strategies for taking notes, reading, processing texts, and retention (Skoglund & Waje, 2000). Implicit is the assumption that the study techniques presented are suitable for all individuals. However, such advice often has a collective approach without taking into account students’ characteristics and study preferences. We believe that individual variations in the motivation to study are important but that they should not be considered on the basis of surface learning or as instrumental competencies. A broader analysis of and insight into study motivation is required within school and subject contexts. In analyzing the motivation to study in compulsory school, it is therefore important to have a perspective that not only focuses on the individual student but also takes into account the entire school and classroom situation. According to Imsen (2006), an analytical model of learning requires that what is happening has to be connected to (a) individuals, (b) the interaction between two people, (c) as a triangular relationship between student, teacher, and subject matter, the didactic triangle, or (d) to a larger structured context, societal processes, as context.

This study aims to describe and analyze how students of three different ages (3rd, 6th, and 8th grade) conceptualize the motivation to study. The research questions are as follows:

1) What conceptions do students in compulsory school in three different age groups in Sweden have about study motivation?

2) What are the similarities and differences among these groups of students?

Our theoretical standpoint is that both internal and external factors are important for understanding and explaining motivation. By internal factors, we refer to the students’ driving forces, and, by external factors, we refer to the influence of the social and material environments, as well as teachers’ and students’ home situations.

Methodology, Methods, Research Instruments or Sources UsedIn this study, we use a phenomenographical approach to explore students’ experiences of study motivation. From this perspective, each individual experiences the world differently due to the different degrees of awareness of things, feelings, or meanings that are embedded in a phenomenon (Akerlind, 2008). Phenomenography defines aspects that are critically different within a group involved in the same situation. These differences make one way of seeing the situation qualitatively different from another.

According to Stamouli and Huggard (2007, p.1), “Phenomenography is a tool for understanding our students,” and it looks at how people experience, understand, and ascribe meaning to a specific situation or phenomenon (Marton & Booth, 1997). When research is conducted with a phenomenographical approach, the world can be seen from two different perspectives, two descriptive levels that are called first- and second-order perspectives (Uljens, 1989). From a first-order perspective, the researcher looks at reality objectively and describes how things are. The focus of this study is on examining how students perceive the motivation to study in compulsory school and hence the study will instead be based on second-order perspectives where the starting point is to describe how people experience their surroundings, that is, the subjective perception of things in the world (Uljens, 1989). The most central concept in phenomenography is thus the concept of perception. However, it is not the individual perception itself that is interesting; it is the possible variation in people’s perceptions of a phenomenon within the group that is of interest (Marton & Booth, 2000).

This study involved 54 students in focus group interviews in primary school in Sweden with variations in their backgrounds in terms of gender, study experiences, academic qualifications, and classes (3rd, 6th, and 8th grade).

Conclusions, Expected Outcomes or FindingsThere is a couple of expected and integrated outcomes. Firstly, variations of conceptions are important to produce in research. Previous research has shown only two studies (Boström & Bostedt, 2022; Szklarski, 2011) in this direction. Secondly, it is relevant to examine differences in perceptions between the three age groups. This, of course, is important for teachers' teaching and the students' understanding in different ages especially in view of the reduced study motivation in adolescence (Martin, 2009). Thirdly, the reasons underlying their motivation to study are often complex and encompass as well as hide different needs. To understand the phenomenon of motivation, a synthesis of theories is also needed. In this study, motivation has primarily been placed in a social and didactical context. What affects students’ motivation to study? Also, what do the students themselves think about the question? In research, different explanations partly overlap each other. In this study, the interest is mainly focused on factors directly linked to the school.

In addition, the study describes and analyze possible causes for success and/or failure in the area of study motivation. The results emphasize the importance of understanding and studying study motivation in a broader perspective where internal and external motivational factors interact. Study results will be valuable not only for Swedish conditions but also from an international perspective.

References

Åkerlind, G. S. (2008). A phenomenographic approach to developing academics’ understanding of the nature of teaching and learning. Teaching in Higher Education, 13:6, 633–644. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562510802452350

Boström, L., & Bostedt, G. (2022). Student conceptions of motivation to study revealed through phenomenography: “Good teaching materials are kind of like good teachers. They make it more fun to study.”(Manuscript in review)

Boström, L., & Bostedt, G. (2020). What about study motivation? Students and teachers’ perspectives on what affects study motivation. What about study motivation? International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 10(8), 40–59

Imsen, G. (2006). Elevens värld. Introduktion till pedagogisk psykologi. [The student’s world. Introduction to educational psychology]. Studentlitteratur

Martin, A. J. (2009). Motivation and engagement across the academic life span. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 69(5), 794–824. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164409332214

Marton, F., & Booth, S. (2000). Om lärande [About learning]. Studentlitteratur.

Marton, F., & Booth, S. (1997). Learning and awareness. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

OECD (2022) PISA – Programme for International Students Assesment. PISA database.  https://www.oecd.org/pisa/data/, 2022-01-16

Skoglund, S., & Waje, L. (2000). Svenska Timmar – språket [Swedish hours – the language]. Gleerups.

Skolverket (2019) PISA 2018. Skolverket

Skolverket (2020a) Uppföljning av gymnasieskolan 2020, Skolverket

Skolverket (2020b) Skolutveckling. Statistik. https://www.skolverket.se/skolutveckling/statistik/sok-statistik-om-forskola-skola-och-vuxenutbildning?sok=SokC&verkform=Grundskolan&omrade=Betyg%20%C3%A5rskurs%209&&lasar=2019/20&run=1. 2020-01-04

Stamouli, I., & Huggard, M. (2007). Phenomenography is a tool for understanding our students. Proceeding, International Symposium for Engineering Education.  Dublin City University

This study aimed to describe and analyze what determines upper secondary students’ motivation or lack of motivation. The theories used are social cognitive theory and didactic theory. The study design is a mixed method approach, followed by an inductive content analysis. The empirical results show many similarities in perceptions of study motivation, such as the role of the teacher, study results, friends and family, and teaching. There were also crucial differences between the three groups, such as such as the view of that the physical and social environment, and aspects of the importance of teachers and the content. Students, teachers, and principals can together create a situation with high study motivation and thus make the students become more successful in their learning.  

In order to increase the number of student who successfully complete upper secondary school, Sweden has reformed its school system. The new system has not changed the throughput, mainly due to low study motivation. The multifaceted concept of study motivation includes various definitions and understandings of the motivation to study. Internal and external motivation factors are important for our study. Motivation originates from dynamic relationships between people; it is context-bound and changeable rather than generalizable and stable. To analyze the lack of motivation to study as the cause of low throughput in the upper secondary school, the perspective must account for the entire school and for the classroom situation. Students’ perceptions of their self-worth, competence, experience, and individual goals are also crucial for the motivation to study. This interacts with how students perceive their duties—if they are relevant, how much benefit they see in them, their difficulty level and working methods, feedback, group dynamics, and other factors relevant to classroom work to influence students’ motivation to study. The aim of this study is to describe and analyze what determines students’ study motivation. Interaction and transaction is used as theoretical tools. The study is based on a multimethod approach. The empirical data comes from 207 students’ responses to a web-survey containing 20 questions about motivation and from six semi-structured group interviews with 12 students and 20 teachers. The statistical data show significant differences between students in study programs regarding positive and negative attitudes toward schoolwork, absence from school, expectations for teachers and for results, competitiveness in realizing personal ambitions, personal feedback, and attitudes toward learning. Significant differences in self-esteem and in self-confidence that affect motivation also exist among the student groups. On the other hand, the results also indicate similarities among the students. They appreciate school as an institution, they feel safe at school, and they recognize teachers’ legitimacy. The interview results indicate that teachers and students both view the complex interplay between results and motivation as important for motivation. Study results affect motivation and vice versa in both positive and negative ways. Teachers and their leadership are also greatly important for students’ study motivation. Teachers focus their leadership on the importance of knowledge. Students relate to teacher leadership in relation to personal qualities, such as being understood and getting support. One difference between the two samples is that teachers emphasize “life skills” in learning, such as strategies for purposes, intermediate goals, and a sense of belonging, but students do not mention these strategies at all. A category where teacher and student perceptions coincide is the importance of well-being and safety in the learning environment and that the class, groups, and peers motivate them.  This study highlight the importance to understand study motivation from different perspectives and different student groups.

En uppföljning av ungdomspolitiken

Under 2009/2010 genomfördes Ungdomsstyrelsens enkät till skolungdomar i kom-munerna i Västernorrland. Tidigare har denna enkät använts vissa år av en del av kommunerna, och det här är första gången som en samordnad datainsamling och -analys görs av ungdomarnas enkätsvar. Det är i de flesta fall ungdomar i åk 8 och gymnasiets åk 2 som besvarat frågorna, men i Timrå och Sollefteå var det åk 7-9 och gymnasiets åk 1-3 som utgjorde målgruppen. Kramfors kommun bidrog med sina data från året innan.

Områden för frågor var

skola, fritid, arbete, framtid, trygghet, hälsa samt samhälle, politik och inflytande. Några exempel på resultat är att många ungdomar vill vara med och påverka i den kommun där de bor, men många vet inte om de har möjlighet att föra fram sina åsikter. Från skolans område har vi sett att det mest är killar som anser att de blir missgynnade pga. ojämställdhet. Många i åk 7-9 svarar att de vill gå i skola i en annan kommun än där de bor och många i gymnasiet svarar att de kommer att flytta från kommunen. Glädjande kan vi också konstatera att de allra flesta av ungdomarna (mer än 95 %) har en optimistisk syn på framtiden för sin egen del.

Den omfattande datainsamlingen gör det möjligt att belysa ett stort antal frågeställ-ningar och formulera frågor till ytterligare analyser av ungdomarnas attityder.

Rapporten redovisar resultat från ungdomsstyrelsens enkät som administrerats av kommunerna till ungdomar i åk 8 och gymnasiets år 2. (Timrå och Sollefteå har använt enkäten i åk 7-9 och år 1-3.) Den här rapporten har ett länsperspektiv och skiljer sig därför en del från de kommunrapporter som berör samma enkät

Elevinflytande ställer stora krav på ledarskap i skolan utifrån skolans funktion som demokratisk institution, kunskapsarena och arbetsplats för många. I kapitlet ställer vi frågan om ledarskapets betydelse i förhållande till elevinflytande som didaktisk praktik. Vi belyser även några policyförändringar med betydelse för dessa frågor och presenterar en möjlig didaktisk modell för elevinflytande. Elevinflytande förstås som ett mål och ett medel länkat till skolans sammantvinnade kunskapsuppdrag och demokratiska uppdrag. Tvärtemot vad som kanske ofta antas eller förstås ställer elevinflytande som didaktisk praktik mycket stora krav på proaktivt ledarskap i klassrummet.

The aim of the paper is to discuss perspectives on power in Swedish schools in relation to policy change in the area of pupil influence. More specific the aim is to discuss possible analytical tools that could contribute to illuminate pupil influence as strategy according to values and power in educational processes.

The Swedish Education Act (2010:800 § 4) stipulates that education in the school system aims at students acquiring and developing knowledge and values. It should promote the development and learning of students. Despite the statement in the Education Act we have today in Sweden an ongoing political discussion on the need to put knowledge as aim in the forefront of values.  Pupil influence, as a way of learning and living democracy in schools, is also being questioned.

In our paper we want to analyze and discuss a policy shift in perspectives of pupils’ participation, i.e. from pupils as subjects participating in achieving the aims of the school system to student as only receiving objects of school activities. Furthermore, we want to discuss how didactical oriented studies can contribute with action strategies enabling both knowledge and values as important aims of everyday activities in schools.   

Elevinflytande som didaktisk strategi

Samhällskunskapsämnet i svensk skola har sin bakgrund i erfarenheterna av de totalitära staternas framväxt på 1930-talet och sedemera nederlag i andra världskriget. Erfarenheterna av europeisk fascism och, i synnerhet, nationalsocialism motiverade ett starkare fokus på demokratifostran. I 1940 års skolutredning, som åtföljdes av 1946 års skolkommission, betonades att samhällsundervisningen behövde förstärkas.”Uppgiften är så pass betydelsefull för elevernas fostran till samhällsmedborgare, att ett särskilt skolämne härför bör inrättas, samhällskunskap ..” (SOU1948:27, s.7). I skolkommissionens rapport föreslogs inrättandet av ett nytt ämne och vikten av det innehåll (samhällsfostran) ämnet skulle förmedla diskuterades. Därutöver kommenterades även formerna för undervisning. ”Lika viktigt är det, att ämnet lägges upp så, att det fångar elevernas intresse.” (a.a., s. 165) Skolans samhälls- och demokratifostrande roll har återfunnits i de läroplaner som därefter gällt. Samtidigt har elevernas delaktighet i genomförandet av undervisningen betonats. I den nu gällande läroplanen för gymnasieskolan står t ex att ”Det är inte tillräckligt att i undervisningen förmedla kunskap om grundläggande demokratiska värden. Utbildningen skall dessutom bedrivas i demokratiska arbetsformer och utveckla elevernas förmåga och vilja att ta personligt ansvar och aktivt delta i samhällslivet.” (Skolverket 2011, s.6). I den svenska skollagen konstateras att ”Barn och elever ska ges inflytande över utbildningen” (SFS 2010:800). Skolans uppdrag att ge de unga en förståelse för det demokratiska samhällets arbetsformer och värderingar omfattar således att både ’leva’ som ’lära’ demokrati. I vår presentation kommer vi diskutera elevinflytande som möjlig didaktiskt orienterad handlingsstrategi i undervisningspraktik. Detta kommer ske såväl i ljuset av de förändringar som införts i den senaste svenska läroplanen gällande elevinflytande, som empiriska resultat från ett antal skolors arbete med elevinflytande. Resultaten kommer analyseras utifrån perspektiv på makt.

Källor: SFS 2010:800. Skollag, Stockholm

Skolverket (2011). Läroplan, examensmål och gymnasiegemensamma ämnen för gymnasieskola 2011, Stockholm:

Skolverket SOU 1948:27. 1946 års skolkommissions betänkande med förslag till riktlinjer för det svenska skolväsendets utveckling. Stockholm

Göran Bostedt, Associate professor of Political Science, Department of Education, Mid-Sweden University. goran.bostedt@miun.se

Linda Eriksson, Assistant professor in Pedagogy, Department of Education, Mid-Sweden University. linda.eriksson@miun.se

Abstract

‘Living’ and ‘learning democracy’ through pupil influence.

Policy changes in the Swedish school system

The aim of our paper is to discuss policy changes in the Swedish school system in relation to the area of ‘living’ and ‘learning democracy’ through pupil influence. The Swedish Education Act (Skollag, 2010:800, § 4) stipulates that education in the school system should aim at pupils acquiring and developing both knowledge and values. It should also promote learning and development of pupils. Despite those statements there is an ongoing discussion in Sweden today primarily about the importance of the knowledge commission. This due to results presented in international measurements studies such as PISA. The aim about values is subordinated and issues of democracy and pupils influence have come to the fore. This is troublesome for Social studies, where the curricula states that teaching should give pupils the opportunity to develop knowledge and skills in the area of power, democracy, gender equality and human rights (Skolverket, 2019)

Our interest is to illuminate changes in policy in relation to education in schools. Earlier research in this area (Englund 1995, 2005) have focused changes in society in relation to policy. Pupil influence could be understood and discussed in different ways (Eriksson, 2019). In our paper, we analyze and discuss the policy shift in Sweden on pupils influence as a change of perspective on pupils as subjects participating in achieving the aims of the school system to pupils as only receiving objects of school activities. We do this by comparing relevant parts of the Swedish curricula for compulsory school from year 1980 to year 2019. The results are discussed in the context of power relations, perspectives on democracy, knowledge and didactical considerations. Our results questions the possibilities to fulfill of the aim of ’learning’ and ‘living’ democracy in schools today.

References:

Englund, T. (2005). Läroplanens och skolkunskapens politiska dimension. Göteborg: Daidalos.

Englund, T. (Red.). (1995). Utbildningspolitiskt systemskifte. Stockholm: HLS Förlag.

Skolverket (2019) https://www.skolverket.se/download/18.4fc05a3f164131a74181078/1535372299998/Social-studies-swedish-school.pdf

Skollag (2010:800).

Abstract

The aim of this article is to describe and analyse pupil influence in four Swedish schools. This is done against the backdrop of the changes that have been made in the Swedish curriculum for compulsory school as well as theoretical perspectives on democracy and power. The article is based on empirical findings from four compulsory schools in two municipalities in northern Sweden. The material was collected through semi-structured focus group interviews and the scanning of documentation from the schools. Although the Swedish Education Act stipulates that activities in the school must be designed in accordance with fundamental democratic values, many Swedish schools have difficulties working with issues of pupil influence. The conclusions of this study are that a proactive attitude among teachers towards the participation, engagement and motivation of pupils is an important element in a didactics that furthers both the democratic goals and the knowledge goals of the school. It is furthermore important that teachers have a theoretical and practical understanding of democracy and reflect on their views concerning democracy in the implementation of their teaching.

I Sverige avbryter var fjärde elev sina gymnasiestudier, fastän intentionen bakom den nya skolreformen 2011 (GY11) var att öka genomströmningen. Ett viktigt skäl till detta är elevers bristande studiemotivation, vilket i sin tur har olika orsaker. Denna studie har valt att fokusera vad som händer i klassrummet,  dvs. lärande och undervisning,  gällande två yrkesprogram, Vård-och Omsorg samt Fordon- och Transport. Syftet med artikeln är att beskriva och analysera elevers lärstrategier och lärares undervisningsstrategier. Forskningsfrågorna var a) hur ser lär-och undervisningsstrategierna ut inom två yrkesprogram, och b) föreligger det några skillnader gällande lär- och undervisningsstrategier dem emellan? Studien bygger på en web-ankät omfattande 121 elever och är en statistisk tvärsnittsstudie som analyserades med hjälp av deskriptiv statistik och chi 2-test med korrigering. Resultatet visar många likheter mellan de båda yrkesprogrammen, såsom preferens för mer praktisk inriktad pedagogik, korta mål och snabb feedback, varierade undervisningssätt samt bra läroböcker. Dock föreligger också statistiskt signifikanta skillnader mellan de båda programmen gällande behovet av struktur, metoder och lärresurser. Resultatet har implikationer för lärarutbildning, praktiserande lärare och eleverna själva. Att genomföra studier på grupp- och programnivå för att bättre förstå studenter i yrkesutbildningar, är ett sätt att utveckla didaktiken för yrkesprogrammen och hitta sätt som stärker elevernas studiemotivation.

The motivation to study may affect students’ successes and setbacks in their studies. Research has shownthat multiple factors affect students’ motivation to study. The purpose of this article is to describe howstudents conceptualize the motivation to study. We gathered empirical data through group interviewswith 32 Swedish students in six study programs. Through phenomenographical analyses, we identified sixcategories of how students experience the motivation to study: the importance of teachers, the subject,student characteristics and attitude, study results, and support from friends and family and theenvironment. Within each category, we distinguished various aspects. Differences in conceptions betweenstudents and programs or types of programs exist, but they are small. Only students from studypreparation programs emphasized the importance of student characteristics and attitude for increasingstudy motivation and getting good jobs. The study’s results show both general and distinctive content inthe meaning of study motivation. We make recommendations to develop incentives for all students, notjust those who have favourable socio-economic study conditions, to develop motivational strategies tostudy. 

The background to this study is the increasing differences in grades and throughput between males and females in Swedish upper secondary school. The study aimed to investigate the relationship between beliefs about study motivation and gender in Sweden in seven different study programs in upper secondary schools. The study adopted quantitative research design. The data were collected via a questionnaire of “Patterns of Adaptive Learning Study” (PALS) designed by Midgely (2001) and adopted to Swedish contexts by Blomgren (2016). The questionnaire consisted of 38 items that were administered to 155 female and 107 male students in upper secondary school in one region in Sweden. The data obtained were analyzed using Mann-Whitney test. Results revealed that overall males and females to 2/ 3 held similar beliefs about their motivation to study but to 1/3 differed at a significant level. Overall, the importance of schools, teachers, families and their own efforts was highly appreciated in the study. The difference was evident mainly in the value of the teacher's importance and role in the classroom, where males had higher estimate. However, females were of the opinion that the school was less safe, that the classrooms were less inviting and that there was less silence in the lessons compared to males. The study partly explained the seemingly paradoxical situation in students' different learning strategies and addresses didactic improvements to teachers.

In Sweden, about 25% of all students leave primary school without complete grades (of which 60% are boys). The reason for these low results is often referred to as students' lack of motivation (Skolverket, 2019). The most important ways to increase study motivation are a) good interaction between teachers and students and b) access to student health. To analyze a lack of study motivation in primary school, a perspective is thus required that not only focuses on the individual student but also takes into account the entire school and classroom situation. The starting point in this study is therefore that study motivation is about transaction (Perry, et al., 2006). Study motivation should not be understood only as an individual trait, but that it is about negotiations of meaning in social interaction. According to Perry et al. (2006) there are strong links between motivation and a) communicated expectations b) clear feedback on results, c) interaction between teacher and student and between students, d) positive climate and e) teacher leadership. Therefore, this study focuses on the teacher’s perceptions and their responsibilities. This study is based on 9 group interviews with 26 teachers in classes 3,6 and 8. The focus of the interviews was teachers’ perceptions about what motivated students to study and what demotivated them. The empirical material was then analyzed with a thematic content analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2012). Subsequently, comparative analyzes were also performed between the three teacher groups. All teacher groups in this study highlight how important the teacher is for students' study motivation. Many teachers believe that students have primarily internal motivation for learning. However, there is no consensus among the teachers about what is important to the students. The core of the concept of study motivation is described relatively similarly; motivation is built up by interest, a desire, and a curiosity to learn. However, it is only the teachers for the youngest students who describe a desire to learn. The teacher’s descriptions in high school are more detailed where they describe many inner driving forces such as challenging oneself and the importance of motivation to future studies. Experiences about what can increase students' study motivation and reasons/explanations for any low study motivation largely show a complex interplay between results and motivation. The crucial difference turned out to be that the teachers in high school give increasingly more exemplary and in-depth explanations to subject issues and that the problem picture with study motivation is more complex and deepens the older the students get. The conclusions we draw are that motivation is an area that becomes more central and more challenging the older the student gets. To support students' study motivation, a much greater understanding of the phenomena among teachers is needed. Our recommendation is to focus on a broad front on all actors in school and listen to and take into account students' voices. In this study, we cannot see the requesting link according to the transactional perspective.

References:

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2012). Thematic analysis. In H. Cooper, P. M. Camic, D. L. Long, A. T. Panter, D. Rindskopf, & K. J. Sher (Eds.), APA handbook of research methods in psychology, Vol. 2: Research designs: Quantitative, qualitative, neuropsychological, and biological (pp. 57–71). American Psychological Association. 

Perry, N.E., Turner, J.C. & Meyer, D.K. (2006) Classrooms as context for motivating learning. I: Patricia A. Alexander & Philip H. Winne (red.) (2006), Handbook of Educational psychology. 2.utg. Mahwah, N.J.: Erlbaum

Skolverket. (2019). Attityder till skolan [Attitudes towards school]. Rapport 479. Skolverket [Swedish National Agency for Education]. 

Internationally, teacher shortage appears to be a major societal problem, including Sweden (Boström et al., 2022; See & Gorard, 2020). According to the United Nations (UNESCO, 2016), the world needs at least 69 million new teachers to reach the education goals of Agenda 2030. In Europe, there is a shortage of teachers in basically all countries (Federičová's, 2020; The European Commission, 2020; OECD, 2020). In Sweden, the Swedish Na-tional Agency for Education [Skolverket] (2019; 2020) and Statistics Sweden (2017a, b) have alerted to the problem. Various actors (media, politicians, opinion leaders and trade unions) have in Sweden expressed their definite and different views on the matter (Kungliga Ingenjörsvetenskap-sakademin,2020). The voices of researchers, teachers and principals are though to a large extent absent (Boström, 2023). At the same time, all stakeholders agree on both the existence of teacher shortage and the im-portance of educated teachers in schools for creating the best possible con-ditions for students to learn.

Our interest is to delineate the specific aspects of the teacher shortage's concerning causes and possible solutions according to professional groups in the field, i.e., that have concrete experience of teacher shortage and its consequences. The research questions for this study are:

• According to seven different professional groups, what are the causes and solutions of teacher shortage?

• Are there differences and similarities between the various professional groups regarding causes and solutions? If so, in what respects?

Theoretical framework for the study is ”wicked problem” (Rittel & Web-ber, 1973). It refers to complex, open-ended, and ambiguous problems that are difficult to define, have no definitive solution, and are interconnected with other problems and societal issues. Wicked problems are characterized by their complex nature, the presence of multiple stakeholders with con-flicting interests, and the lack of clear problem boundaries. The wicked problem theory emphasizes that traditional approaches to problem-solving are often insufficient for addressing complex problems. Instead, it encour-ages a more holistic and collaborative approach, involving various stake-holders, disciplines, and perspectives.

The study is based on a web survey, answered by 605 informants, consisting of 40 items about causes and possible solutions based on previous research and dialogue meetings with regional and national policy actors. The selection of participants included both academic and practical professions as well as a representation of teacher students. Data are analyzed by de-scriptive and inferential statistics. The results are reported with descriptive statistics and significance testing. Descriptive statistics presents an overall picture of the various items at a group level. Mann–Whitney U- test investigates the distinctions between professional categories.

Preliminary results indicated that items were differently relevant for different professional groups. Three professional groups diverged largely from other groups, namely health staff, uneducated teachers, and teacher train-ers. The results confirm the importance of seeing the problem as “wicked” and therefore engaging diverse stakeholders in the problem-solving process to foster collective intelligence and shared responsibility. The connection to the conferences is evident, i.e., the role and impact of educated teachers in the context of school effectiveness and improvement.

Abstract. One out of every four upper secondary school students in Sweden interrupts their education, although the intention behind the new Curriculum for Upper Secondary School (GY 11) was to increase throughput of students with complete grades. Lack of study motivation is the most important explanation for students dropping out. This article analyzes study motivation from students and teachers’ perspectives. It is based on interviews in three upper secondary school programs that were analyzed with a qualitative approach and hybrid content analysis. Study motivation is set in relation to motivational strategies, achievement, and learning environment. The result showed similarities and differences in perceptions. Both teachers and students pointed to the importance of teachers, practical pedagogy, social relations, and the significance of grades for study motivation. An important difference between informants was that teachers put more emphasis on life skills and adapted study groups, whereas students pointed to the physical learning environment and teachers’ personalities as important. Conclusions in the study point to complex interplay between internal and external motivational factors and between situation, person, and learning processes. This leads to validity of interactive and transactional motivational perspectives. A broader and more in-depth study is needed primarily to understand students’ perspectives.

Every fourth student in Sweden cancels their upper secondary school education, although the intention behind the new school reform 2011 (GY-11) was to increase the throughput. One important reason for this is a lack of study motivation, which, in turn, has different causes. The authors of this study have chosen to focus on students' perceptions of what is happening in the classroom (i.e., learning and teaching in four different study programs). The purpose of the article is to describe and analyze students' perceptions of what motivates or demotivates them. The research questions are: a) what is important to study motivation?, and b) are there any differences regarding study motivation between programs? The study is based on a web survey of 126 students and four group interviews of 12 students. The interviews were analyzed using thematic content analysis. This is across-sectional study that also was analyzed using descriptive statistics and chi-squared tests with correction. The results show the importance of learning and teaching strategies, teachers, and learning environments. Some similarities were found between the four upper secondary programs, such as a preference for more practically-oriented pedagogy, short-term goals and quick feedback, varied teaching methods, and good textbooks. However, there are also statistically significant differences between the programs regarding the need for structure, learning methods, and preferred perceptual preferences. The results have implications for teacher education, practicing teachers, and the students themselves. Conducting studies at the group- and program-level to better understand students is a way to develop the didactics for specific study programs and find ways to strengthen students' study motivation.