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The Magnitude of Diving Bradycardia During Apnea at Low-Altitude Reveals Tolerance to High Altitude Hypoxia
Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Health Sciences.
Mid Sweden University, Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Nursing Sciences.
Nepalese Army Inst Hlth Sci, Kathmandu, Nepal.
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2019 (English)In: Frontiers in Physiology, E-ISSN 1664-042X, Vol. 10, p. 1-12, article id 1075Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Acute mountain sickness (AMS) is a potentially life-threatening illness that may develop during exposure to hypoxia at high altitude (HA). Susceptibility to AMS is highly individual, and the ability to predict it is limited. Apneic diving also induces hypoxia, and we aimed to investigate whether protective physiological responses, i.e., the cardiovascular diving response and spleen contraction, induced during apnea at low-altitude could predict individual susceptibility to AMS. Eighteen participants (eight females) performed three static apneas in air, the first at a fixed limit of 60 s (A1) and two of maximal duration (A2-A3), spaced by 2 min, while SaO(2), heart rate (HR) and spleen volume were measured continuously. Tests were conducted in Kathmandu (1470 m) before a 14 day trek to mount Everest Base Camp (5360 m). During the trek, participants reported AMS symptoms daily using the Lake Louise Questionnaire (LLQ). The apnea-induced HR-reduction (diving bradycardia) was negatively correlated with the accumulated LLQ score in A1 (r(s) = -0.628, p= 0.005) and A3 (r(s) = -0.488, p = 0.040) and positively correlated with SaO(2) at 4410 m (A1: r = 0.655, p = 0.003; A2: r = 0.471, p = 0.049; A3: r = 0.635, p = 0.005). Baseline spleen volume correlated negatively with LLQ score (r(s) = -0.479, p = 0.044), but no correlation was found between apnea-induced spleen volume reduction with LLQ score (r(s) = 0.350, p = 0.155). The association between the diving bradycardia and spleen size with AMS symptoms suggests links between physiological responses to HA and apnea. Measuring individual responses to apnea at sea-level could provide means to predict AMS susceptibility prior to ascent.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
2019. Vol. 10, p. 1-12, article id 1075
Keywords [en]
acute mountain sickness, breath-hold diving, hypoxia, prediction, cardiovascular diving response, spleen
National Category
Health Sciences
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:miun:diva-37117DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.01075ISI: 000482202400001Scopus ID: 2-s2.0-85072189253OAI: oai:DiVA.org:miun-37117DiVA, id: diva2:1348681
Available from: 2019-09-05 Created: 2019-09-05 Last updated: 2024-01-17Bibliographically approved
In thesis
1. Protective Responses to Freediving Reveal High-Altitude Tolerance
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Protective Responses to Freediving Reveal High-Altitude Tolerance
2022 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

High-altitude mountaineers - just as freedivers - are exposed to hypoxia. During freediving, the diving response leads to reduced oxygen consumption, and splenic contraction increases circulating hemoglobin concentration (Hb), which enhances freediving performance. It is unknown whether these responses relate with altitude-induced responses and what role the spleen has at high-altitude. My thesis aimed to explore whether associations exist between these apnea-induced responses and tolerance to high-altitude. In five studies, I investigated the diving response and splenic contraction during apnea in a range of groups, including recreational trekkers, elite climbers, indigenous Sherpa (living high and living low) and endurance athletes, at low-altitude and at high-altitude. My primary finding was striking: the diving response and splenic size were associated with tolerance to high-altitude; lowlanders with a strong diving response and large spleen showed less symptoms of acute mountain sickness at high-altitude. I also found that groups often exposed to high-altitude have larger spleens compared with groups who reside at sea-level. Interestingly, the Sherpa living high had larger spleens compared with Sherpa living low. Another important finding was that the spleen is reduced in size by ~14% per 1000 m of ascent in lowlanders, which was associated with enhanced baseline Hb. I also found that endurance athletes, who are dependent on efficient oxygen delivery, have larger spleens compared with untrained individuals. I conclude, that a strong diving response and a large spleen may be characteristics of high-altitude tolerant lowlanders, and could possibly be used to predict high-altitude sensitivity. Studies 1-4 suggest that a large spleen is a favourable trait in several groups to tolerate high-altitude hypoxia, likely by its ability to regulate circulating Hb. Sherpa had larger spleens compared with lowlanders, indicating that genetic factors influence splenic size, while the finding that Sherpa living high had larger spleens than Sherpa living low indicate that splenic size also is influenced by environmental exposure. Study 4 revealed a tonic splenic contraction in lowlanders at high-altitude, suggesting that the Hb regulating function may be important before EPO-induced red cell increase occurs, thereby aiding individual acclimatization. 

Abstract [sv]

Bergsbestigare - precis som fridykare - utsätts för syrebrist. Vid fridykning leder dykresponsen till minskad syreförbrukning, och mjältkontraktion ökar koncentrationen av cirkulerande hemoglobin (Hb), vilket försvarar kroppen mot syrebrist. Det är okänt om dessa försvarsreaktioner relaterar till de reaktioner som framkallas på hög höjd och vilken roll mjälten har på hög höjd. Min avhandling syftade till att undersöka om det finns något samband mellan dessa apné-inducerade reaktioner och tolerans mot hög höjd. I fem studier undersökte jag dykresponsen och mjältkontraktionen vid apné (anhållning), i olika grupper, inklusive fritidsvandrare, elitklättrare, inhemska sherpa (uppdelat mellan de som bor högt och de som bor lågt) och uthållighetsidrottare, på låg höjd och på hög höjd. Mitt primära fynd var slående: dykresponsen och mjältstorleken var associerade med tolerans mot syrebrist på hög höjd; lågländare med stark dykrespons och stor mjälte visade mindre symtom på akut hög höjdsjuka på hög höjd. Jag fann också att grupper som ofta exponeras för hög höjd har större mjälte jämfört med grupper som bor på havsnivå. Intressant nog hade Sherpa som bodde på hög höjd större mjältar jämfört med Sherpa som har migrerat till låg höjd. Ett annat viktigt fynd var att mjälten minskar i storlek med ~14% per 1000 m stigning hos lågländare, vilket var associerat med vilo- Hb. Jag fann också att uthållighetsidrottare, som är beroende av effektiv syretillförsel, har större mjältar jämfört med otränade individer. Jag drar slutsatsen att en stark dykrespons och en stor mjälte kan vara egenskaper hos höghöjdstoleranta lågländare som möjligen kan användas för att förutsäga höghöjdskänslighet. Studier 1–4 visade att mjälten är fördelaktig för att tolerera syrebrist på hög höjd i en rad olika grupper på hög höjd, troligen genom dess förmåga att reglera cirkulerande Hb. Sherpa hade större mjältar jämfört med lågländare, vilket tyder på att genetiska faktorer påverkar mjältstorleken, medan upptäckten att Sherpa som lever högt hade större mjältar än sherpa som lever lågt visar att mjältstorleken även bestäms av miljömässiga faktorer. Studie 4 visade en tonisk mjältkontraktion hos lågländare på hög höjd, vilket tyder på att den Hb-reglerande funktionen kan vara viktig innan EPO-inducerad ökning av röda blodkroppar sker, vilket kan bidra till individuell acklimatisering.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Sundsvall: Mid Sweden University, 2022. p. 117
Series
Mid Sweden University doctoral thesis, ISSN 1652-893X ; 368
Keywords
Acclimatization, Acute Mountain Sickness, Adaptation, Apnea, Breath-hold diving, Cardiovascular diving response, High-altitude, Hypoxia tolerance, Spleen, Acklimatisering, Andhållningsdykning, Anpassning, Apné, Kardiovaskulära dykresponsen, Hög höjd, Hypoxitolerans, Hög-höjdssjukdom, Mjälte, Syrebärande kapacitet
National Category
Physiology and Anatomy Evolutionary Biology Sport and Fitness Sciences
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:miun:diva-44746 (URN)978-91-89341-56-2 (ISBN)
Public defence
2022-04-29, F229, Kunskapens väg 8, Östersund, 10:00 (English)
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Supervisors
Available from: 2022-03-31 Created: 2022-03-31 Last updated: 2025-02-11Bibliographically approved

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Holmström, PontusMulder, EricLodin-Sundström, AngelicaSchagatay, Erika

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